The changing climate: its impact on the Department for Transport

Table of contents

• Summary
• Introduction
• Climate change
• Impacts and Priorities
• What does this mean for transport?
• What is the transport industry doing?
• The Role of the Department for Transport
• Annex 1: Impacts of Climate Change on Transport
• Roads and Local Transport
• Update on Current Action
• Aviation
• Underground
• Update on Current Action
• Shipping
• Ports
• Appendix 1: Research into Climate Change and Transport
• Impacts research
• Risk Assessment Tools
• Regional Research

Summary

The Changing Climate: Impact on the Department for Transport was written by Sarah Wooller of the In-House Policy Consultancy, DfT.

• Climate-change/transport web page.
• Reactivating the severe weather impact group.
• A technical workshop for climate change modellers and transport practitioners.

• Report to the Department for Transport on which technical standards will need to be revised in light of the climate change scenarios, identifying priorities for change, and setting out a 5 year programme of revisions.

• Work with the HA to provide initial guidance to Local Authorities identifying the main issues outlining options for taking climate change into account in planning maintenance and improvements.

• UKCIP should hold a workshop with DfT, SRA, ORR and RSSB to start the process of assessing what level of climate change should be planned for, and identifying priorities.
• That DfT issue guidance to the Office of the Rail Regulator identifying climate change as an impact which should be taken into account when determining an appropriate budget for Network Rail.
• Climate change impacts should be considered when proposals for enhancement schemes are drawn up with SRA.

Introduction

6. The UK's climate is changing. The last few years have provided ample examples of hot dry summers, and warm wet winters with episodes of intense rain. These are not isolated incidents, but part of a trend which will have an impact on many of our long-term policies and infrastructures. Historical weather data therefore can no longer be relied on to prepare for future years.

7.This report identifies how climate change will impact on our transport systems, what action is already being taken to prepare for climate change within the Department for Transport and related bodies, and where further action is needed.

8. The report and recommendations are addressed to Government Green Ministers, and to officials in the Department for Transport and its agencies. But many of these recommendations cannot be taken forward by the Department and agencies acting on their own.

9. Local Authorities and many private companies are involved in designing, building, and operating transport infrastructure and vehicles. Often the Department or its agencies has a direct role in commissioning and paying for such work. But in other areas the Department takes an influencing role, providing the legal framework, guidance and information.

This report

10. A stakeholder seminar was held in the Department for Transport in September 2003, on the Impacts of Climate Change. This was followed up by a workshop for key players in the rail industry, literature review and interviews (sometimes by telephone) with staff from DfT, HA, MCA, and ABP. A list of interviewees is at Appendix 1.

11. The first section of the report identifies the major changes we can expect to see in the next 20 to 80 years. The report then goes on to identify the most critical issues facing transport. These are by no means all the issues identified, so Annex 1 goes through all the impacts, mode by mode, noting where other reports have made recommendations. The last two sections identify the barriers to action and ways in which the Department for Transport can address them.

Climate change

12. During the summer of 2003, we experienced the hottest temperatures recorded in the UK, and analysis suggests that this led to additional deaths amongst the most vulnerable. This is not an isolated incident. The 1990s were the warmest decade in the last 100 years. There is evidence that rainfall patterns are changing, that sea levels are rising, and that the incidence of extreme weather is increasing in some parts of the world.

13. These changes will continue, and we are now in a position to put fairly definite figures on how much change to expect over the next 30 years, even if we cut emissions of greenhouse gases now, because of the levels of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.

14. In 2002 the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP) and the Hadley Centre developed scenarios identifying the likely national and regional changes in our climate within the next 20 years and up to the turn of the century. These impact scenarios are regarded as world-class.

15. An example of the likely changes in rainfall is given below. As this demonstrates, changes will be apparent by the 2020s. The information is available on a sub-regional basis. The full set of scenarios together with definitions and guidance on their usage is available at www.ukcip.org.uk

Example of likely changes in rainfall

The scenarios shown above give different views of how the climate will develop depending on global emissions of greenhouse gases. The climate change we will experience in the 2020s is largely fixed, as it depends mainly on the CO2 and other greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere. The scenarios for the 2050s and 2080s diverge more depending on future emissions.

• The UK climate will become warmer, with annual averages up by 2-3.5°C by 2080.
• Hot summers will become more frequent, very cold winters increasingly rare. The very hot August we had in 1995 may occur one year in five by the 2050s.
• Winters will become wetter and summers may become drier throughout the UK. Overall soils will become drier.
• Snowfall amounts will decrease throughout the UK.
• Heavy winter rain will become more frequent - extreme rainfall 1 will be 5%-20% heavier by the 2080s.
• Relative sea level will generally continue to rise, by between 26-86cm in the south-east by the 2080s.
• Extreme sea levels could occur up to 10-20 times more frequently by the 2080s than they do now.
• The evidence for increased storminess with climate change is uncertain.

1 Which we currently experience once every 2 years

Impacts and Priorities

What does this mean for transport?

• Increased flooding during winter. Flooding can affect all modes of transport. The risks are greater in flood plains and where urban drains are overloaded.
• Some coastal stretches may be at risk of inundation by the sea during periods of particularly high winds when this is coupled with the highest tides. This will be of particular concern for coastal railways, eg in Wales and parts of South West England.
• More extreme heat during summer could lead to heat exhaustion for vulnerable passengers on the London Underground particularly when subject to delays;
• Sudden structural failures are extremely uncommon, but, if no action were taken, the risk of such failures could increase due to soil saturation and the scouring action of rain/high rivers.
• Difficult driving conditions due to snow and ice would decrease but the number of days when driving was difficult due to rain, leaves and storms would increase.
• Even though the number of days of frost and snow will decrease, it will be important to retain experience in dealing with sub-zero temperatures.

• In February 1990, the sea wall at Towyn in North Wales, which is shared with the railway, was breached by a combination of storm and high tide. The wall, which is maintained by Network Rail, also acted as a sea defence for the town and, following its collapse, 5000 people had to be evacuated.
• On one day in July 2003, 4,000 passengers were trapped on London Underground in broken down trains for at least 90 minutes, and subjected to combined temperatures and humidity approaching 40°C. Ten people were taken to hospital suffering from heat exhaustion and 627 were treated at the scene.
• Floods in autumn 2000 left parts of the country inaccessible for days. When 2-3 months worth of rain fell in 30 minutes in August 2002, 17 LU stations, and 5 mainline London stations were flooded, mainly because the drainage infrastructure was unable to cope with the increased run-off.
• Two rail bridges collapsed suddenly in the late '80s at Glanrhyd and Inverness as a result of high river levels which led to scouring and undermining of foundations. Four people died at Glanrhyd.
• The high temperatures in the summer of 2003 also gave rise to deformations in the surface of many roads, and widespread speed restrictions on the rail network due to real and potential rail buckling.
• Heavy snow in eastern England caught out thousands of drivers in January 2003, many of whom were trapped in their vehicles overnight or had to abandon their vehicles.

20. In practice the impact of climate change on transport will mean that the weather phenomena which cause these impacts happen more often, and the extremes will become more intense.

21. To respond to these changes will require a two-pronged approach. Infrastructure will need to be built and maintained to withstand hotter temperatures, worse storms, more intense rain, and higher sea levels. Contingency plans will also have to change in expectation that they will be needed more often and for more extreme impacts. As the climate changes, responses to it will also change and for many impacts this evolutionary approach will be sufficient. But a more structured approach is justified in many cases, particularly:

• where new build or routine renewal of infrastructure to a higher standard would be much more cost-effective than unplanned replacements at a later date; or
• an extreme weather event could have a catastrophic impact.

What is the transport industry doing?

Responding to existing weather

• Flooding: The Highways Agency and Network Rail have maps of flood hotspots which are used to predict where trouble will occur and target maintenance and contingency plans. Network Rail has a database that enables it to link incidents to weather 2 . The Highways Agency has completed an audit of its drains, to improve its maintenance of them.
• Autumn Leaves: Network Rail, Highways Agency and London Underground all actively manage the plants which grow alongside track and road, and Network Rail/LU are moving to slower growing plants to reduce leaf fall.
• Driving Conditions: Weather cameras on the M4 allow active traffic management. This includes speed limits which change during poor driving conditions.
• Network Resilience: Both the Highways Agency and Network Rail have teams looking at ways of improving network resilience including continuing resilience to snow.
• Air-conditioning the London Underground: A competition has been run to devise a way of reducing summer temperatures within London Underground with a prize of £1m. Whilst this prize has yet to be won, work is continuing. New carriages will be introduced over the next fifteen years which will have improved forced ventilation, and mini air-conditioning units have been introduced to drivers' cabs. However, there is currently no hot weather contingency plan, or temperature monitoring within carriages.

Preparing for Future Weather

23. Work to ensure that the transport infrastructure is able to cope with future weather patterns is at a more preparatory stage.

24. The most tangible action so far is the growing recognition of the need for action to reduce the impact of floods. The text below sets out some of the action taken.

Action to Prevent Flooding Planning Policy is to restrict development in flood-prone areas to essential transport infrastructure. PPG 25 requires developers to act on a precautionary basis, taking account of climate change. A risk assessment is required: new infrastructure should be safe from flooding and should not make floods worse. Where the risk of flooding is above 1%, undeveloped land is deemed unsuitable for development, unless transport infrastructure is essential when suitable mitigation measures are required. The Environment Agency provides advice on flood measures, and suitable mitigation. Example: - tunnels have been included under the A27 near Chichester to facilitate speedy drainage.

The Role of the Department for Transport

Introduction

Recommendation

• Developing an ongoing focal point within the Department for Transport for climate change. There is currently something of a stop-start approach to adapting to climate change. A more permanent focal point is needed to co-ordinate research and raise awareness.
• Developing a climate-change web page bringing together details of existing research into climate change and transport and allowing practitioners to swap information and advice.
• Reactivating the severe weather impact group in conjunction with the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. Monitoring and modelling of climate change will continue to develop. This needs to be honed to the Department's needs. This is best done in conjunction with other departments and stakeholders.
• Holding a technical workshop, bringing together climate change modellers, and transport practitioners to identify which modelled climate parameters are feasible and would be of most use in practical application. 6

Major Roads

Recommendation

38. The Department should ask the Highways Agency to review the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges to carry out an assessment of the standards to identify which standards will need to be revised in the light of UKCIP's scenarios for climate change.

39. The Highways Agency should report back to the Department for Transport in the next 6 months, identifying priorities for change, bearing in mind the criteria set out in paragraph 33 above, and setting out a 5 year programme of revisions.

Minor Roads

Recommendation

• The Roads Liaison Group should work with the HA to provide initial guidance within the next 9 months to Local Authorities. The guidance should identify the main issues for Local Authorities and outline options for taking climate change into account in planning maintenance and improvements.

Rail

Recommendation

• That UKCIP hold a workshop with DfT, SRA, ORR and RSSB to start the process of assessing what level of climate change should be planned for, and identifying priorities for action within the next 4 months. It is also worth considering whether it would be helpful to include a representative from the insurance industry.
• That DfT issue guidance to the Office of the Rail Regulator identifying climate change as an impact which should be taken into account when determining an appropriate budget for Network Rail. It would be helpful to issue the guidance in time for development of the new Rail Regulatory Board, scheduled for July 2004.
• That climate change impacts are considered when proposals for enhancement schemes are drawn up with SRA.

Aviation, Shipping, Ports and London Underground

Recommendation

5 Delivering Better Transport: Progress Report http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstrat/documents/page/dft_transstrat_023008.hcsp

6 Such a workshop could helpfully include the Highways Agency, BAA, the County Surveyors Society (to represent the Local Authorities), the Institution of Highways and Transportation, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Rail Safety and Standards Board, Network Rail, the climate change modellers, and the Environment Agency. UKCIP would be well placed to lead such a discussion because of its closeness to impacts and models.

Annex 1: Impacts of Climate Change on Transport

• Rising sea level and wetter winters will mean that we can expect increased flooding and flash flooding during winter from higher tides, from rivers and from urban drains. As yet it is very unclear whether floods will lead to land or infrastructure being abandoned.
• Structures and stock will be subject to more weathering from wind, river scour, driving rain and salt water, but less snow and surface frost. There will be less need for winter heating.
• The wetter winters, coupled with the drier summers, and drying soils will lead to more subsidence/heave and more landslips. There will also be less water available to inland waterways during the summer.
• Structures, stock and passengers will need to cope with higher summer temperatures and more glare in winter. The demand for air-conditioned vehicles is likely to increase.
• More extreme weather is likely to lead to more days when travel conditions are poor affecting operations, performance and safety.
• There will be changes in the biodiversity at the sides of roads and railways. The size of this soft estate is substantial (HA owns soft estate the size of the Isle of Wight).
• The Mediterranean-style summers in the UK and summer heat and drought further south is likely to increase air and land travel to the UK in the summer, and thus will impact on local congestion patterns.
• Modal shift is unpredictable, but dry summers could lead to an increase in cycling, whilst weather induced disruption on the railway network or lack of air conditioning could lead to additional car use.

Roads and Local Transport

• Increased risks of flooding from rivers and sea. It is predicted that both the frequency and magnitude of flooding will increase. There are several different elements to adaptation:
  • Assessing the relative importance of the road. Are there alternative routes?
  • Improved flood protection.
  • Carrying out a risk assessment for any new road (in accordance with Planning Policy Guidance on Development and Flood Risk), bearing in mind that road embankments on flood plains can make floods worse.
  • Contingency planning - what route will the emergency services use?
  • Ensuring bridge openings and culverts are sufficient to deal with predicted levels of flooding.
    
    
• Increased flooding from inadequate drainage. Drainage is an important source of flooding, particularly where drains are badly maintained, and in urban areas. Drainage requirements will change not just as a result of increased storms but also as a result of increased weathering of drains and roads from heat and additional vegetation. Good co-operation is needed between the different drainage authorities.
  
  
• Deterioration of highway infrastructure (earthworks, bridges, pavements etc). Many of the structural features of our roads have a life-span of over 100 years, and long term climate change planning is therefore of relevance here. A reduction in days of frost will reduce weathering of structures. However, many of the changes predicted will increase weathering. In particular:
  • Embankments are at risk of both subsidence and heave, as a result of wetter winters, drier summers and changing vegetation.
  • Bridges, signs, overhead cables and other tall structures are at risk from increased wind speeds.
  • Concrete deterioration may increase from higher summer temperatures and driving rain.
  • Asphalt and concrete will behave in different ways. Black surfaces have melted and rutted this summer. This causes the aggregate to subside and the road to lose its grip (road-stone polishing). Larger extremes of temperature will also have an impact.

These impacts require further research (including comparisons with other countries) to understand them fully. They will have an impact on design and maintenance issues - though it should be borne in mind that motorways are ageing rather better than expected.

• Changes in road safety Increasingly extreme weather has an obvious impact on driving conditions, whether because of flooding, driving rain, high winds, or summer heat. There are also a number of less obvious issues such as winter glare, dusty roads which then become slippery when it rains, increased vegetation obscuring signs, road rutting and road-stone polishing from the heat.
• Changes to the management of landscape and biodiversity. This is a surprisingly large issue as the Highways Agency owns considerably large areas of soft estate. Climate change is likely to change the plant species that will thrive, and increase overall growth rate. There is likely also to be some soil erosion.

The Highways Agency's main concerns are:- the need to ensure that embankments and other structures are stable if there is subsidence or heave; the need to build 'weather-proofing' into maintenance schedules and the need to improve drainage.

Regional climate change studies also identified a number of impacts on roads. These included:

• Higher rainfall could increase the incidences of pollution from foul sewers siphoning back as culverts fail. It could also wash away old country lanes which have limited foundations and generally poor or non-existent drainage.
• Drier conditions, such as those experienced in the drought of 1976, led to the collapse of dry stone roadside walls.

Contingency plans for other climate change issues, such as water shortages can lead to massive overuse of local roads (see below).

Changing Road Use

During the summer of 1995, 2500 water-tankers fed standpipes in Yorkshire every day for six weeks. This led to damage of £1m to the roads.

Update on current action

The Highways Agency commissioned a research project from TRL Limited on 'Climate change and the Highways Agency', which was completed in January 2001. The report covered both the influence of the Highways Agency operations on climate change as well as the implications of the changing climate for the Agency's operations, and made several recommendations for further research, monitoring and action.

On 5th March 2003 the NAO published a report on "Maintaining England's Motorways and Trunk Roads 7 . As a result of the autumn 2000 floods and the NAO report the Highways Agency is developing an inventory of the drainage estate, and is taking action to improve drainage. A PAC hearing in response to the NAO's report was held in September 2003.

The Highways Agency is responding to road safety issues proactively, by improving the way in which it responds to weather conditions. Cameras on the M4 are used to identify when light is poor, or it is raining. This information is used to control speed limits. Similar information is also fed through to traffic control centres to allow active traffic management. 1,000 more cameras are planned.

7 http://www.nao.gov.uk/publications/nao_reports/02-03/0203431.pdf

Rail

Most of the impacts of climate change on the railways will require action by Network Rail, which is responsible for stewardship of the rail infrastructure, including the track, stations, signalling, bridges etc.

Rail Safety and Standards Board has recently published a report by AEA technology 'Safety Implications of Weather, Climate and Climate Change' 8 . The report identifies the climate change issues for the rail industry, the gaps in knowledge and some of the work needed to determine how the railway industry should respond to the threats associated with climate change. The AEA technology report is a valuable reference for existing research, data sets, and contacts concerned with climate change, weather and rail.

Key impacts identified by the report and in discussion with stakeholders are outlined below. Key recommendations from the report are outlined in italics. A number of additional impacts have been identified by stakeholders. These are included with attributions.

• Estuarine and Urban Flooding. The issues raised here are similar to those discussed above for roads. However, there is considerably less opportunity to bypass flooded areas. Local floods, particularly in urban stations, can cause major disruption across the network. Better definition is needed of the areas at risk from flooding, based on the Environment Agency's flood maps, predictions of rainfall, and sea-level. Modern standards for drainage 9 need to be applied in a way which is representative of the weather and climate for the expected lifetime of the asset. Incident response and management measures also merit attention, for responding to extreme weather. Additional flood defences may be needed and the development of rainfall-related alert criteria for vulnerable locations.
• Coastal flooding Significant sections of track in Wales and the south west of England run directly along the coast. They are already vulnerable to coastal flooding. Flood defences may be unable to cope with rising seas and increased storms. An assessment is needed to identify the adequacy of current measures.
• Earthworks The age of the rail network means that there are already problems with landslips and collapses during times of heavy rain. These affect old embankments, tunnels and areas where there are old mine workings. These problems can be expected to increase. Work is planned to create an Earthworks Action Database, on the same basis as the Scour Action Database. This may need to take account of the implications of climate change Drier summers will also exacerbate subsidence. Control techniques already exist. The South- West regional study also identified stability of cliffs with railways on them as being an issue.
• The impact of driving rain/swollen rivers on bridges etc. A decision-making tool is being piloted which predicts assets at risk due to scouring and enables appropriate action to be taken e.g. speed restrictions, monitoring or closure to traffic. The tool may need to be adapted to future peak rainfalls and river flows.
• Storms, particularly driving rain and hail can cause a higher number of Signals Passed at Danger (SPAD) and other hazards such as derailments, and collisions. Changes in Lightning/electrical disturbance will also affect electronic equipment. The impact which climate change will make is not yet well understood.
• Changes in the autumn fall of leaves. Significant efforts are already underway to address risks associated with leaf-fall and other vegetation issues. This work may need to take into account changes in growth patterns. 10
• High summer temperatures causing rail buckling. This summer saw speed restrictions imposed across wide stretches of the rail network, during the heat wave, increasing long-distance journey times and reducing the frequency of some services. Consideration is being given to the temperatures to which rails should be stressed. High temperatures may also require better air conditioning for signals. ORR identified maintenance procedures as an issue. Good spring maintenance of jointed tracks and ballast reduces the likelihood that heat will cause track instability. However, Network Rail should make sure that maintenance is not carried out when a heat wave is forecast. This is because the maintenance itself destabilises the track for a few days.
• Impact of high winds on overhead cables, vehicles, trees, and people's sheds on the line! Preliminary work has identified the speeds at which winds have a safety impact on assets. This is particular importance to sections of electrified track with overhead cables. The vulnerability of the network to high winds needs further work.

Update on Current Action

• quantifying the potential effects of climate change on safety performance, delays and safety risk;
• improving understanding of the effects of higher sea levels on railway coastal and estuarine infrastructure. This is likely to be localised and complex because of the interaction of sea level rise, the tilting of the UK and increased storm surges.
• fostering greater understanding of the effects of climate change on vegetation. This is of concern because of both leaf fall and fallen trees.
• establishing more formal links with other research organisations to keep up to date with developments

8 http://www.railwaysafety.org.uk/pdf/ClimateChangeFR.pdf

9 CIRIA standards and CoP RT/CE/C006

10 Changing fauna may also impact on infrastructure.

Aviation

Airports suffer from the same physical impacts of the changing climate as other large developments, with possible problems including subsidence, flooding, drainage and the impact of high temperatures on runways.

Drainage is a particular issue because airports have large areas of hard servicing, and could cause flooding if the water were released into local rivers too quickly. When there is heavy rain after frost this is a particular issue, as the water may be contaminated with de-icers. Both Gatwick and Heathrow have recently been developing very significant facilities to cope with much larger water run-off. This work is being developed in conjunction with the Environment Agency. Flooding is also an issue when motorways are involved as this can cause considerable delays for passengers. Any new development in areas where there is a risk of flooding would require a flood risk assessment under PPG25.

Higher temperatures reduce the density of the air, thus increasing the fuel needed and, in some limited cases, the runway length needed for takeoff of old planes with full payloads. In practice this means that the flight will run at slightly less than full capacity. As the climate changes however, issues about runway length are likely to become less of an issue: new planes are designed to takeoff more effectively.

Deformation of runways due to high temperature is unlikely to be a safety issue. Asphalt used for runways is far denser than that used for motorways and less likely to deform. Deformation is more likely where taxi-lanes are coming to the end of their life and have been patched. Monitoring at airports is very high however, and such problems would be picked up and the taxi-lane closed before they became an issue.

Travel patterns are also likely to change as the south of England becomes more Mediterranean in climate.

Finally, there is a need to ensure that methods of dealing with ice and snow are not lost. The winter of 2002/03 demonstrated that there can still be very heavy snow in a short period.

Most airports are privately owned, although some are owned by Local Authorities. The Department's role is therefore limited to providing information and a forum for research, and also planning for any future air transport capacity.

Underground

• The heat and lack of ventilation in cabs and carriages during periods of intense summer heat. Ventilation is a particular concern when trains are not moving, as the train creates its own ventilation.
• Floods. The water table in London is rising due to the reduction in heavy industry, causing large volumes of water to seep into the London Underground tunnel system. This water is continually pumped at over 630 locations. To date most floods in the Underground have been in stations due to inadequate urban drainage, rather than from tracks flooding. Wetter winters and more intense rain will both have an impact on floods.
• The underground railway line in Liverpool has also been more susceptible to water intrusion recently.
• Leaves on the track, from prolonged growth periods.

Update on Current Action

• London Underground Limited maintains a risk database to ensure that safety and business risks are kept at an acceptable level. Flood risks have been identified up to 2035 and a 5 year Pumping Strategy for London is underway. London Underground Limited has also carried out research into the impact of rising water tables on sub-soils.
• An expensive programme of tunnel re-lining and pumping on the underground railway line in Liverpool has also been carried out. Higher winter rainfall will cost rail operators more in pumping.
• Action to prevent over-heating in the London Underground is less advanced. The Mayor of London ran a competition to devise a way of reducing summer temperatures within London Underground with a prize of £1m. Whilst this prize has yet to be won, work is continuing.
• New carriages will be introduced over the next fifteen years. These will have improved forced ventilation, and mini air-conditioning units have been introduced to drivers' cabs. Staff are also more aware of the issue. However, there is currently no hot weather contingency plan, nor is there temperature monitoring within carriages.

Shipping

• Resulting in more search and rescue operations and more vessels needing emergency towing.
• Requiring better weather forecasting.
• Potentially requiring changes to the seasonal classification of waters around the coast.
• Potentially requiring changes to ship and boat design.
• Inland Waterways which are likely to receive less water. Some canals in the north west are already vulnerable to low water levels in dry summers.
• Shipping channels and areas of mobile sea bed are also likely to change, requiring changes to navigation, including potentially navigation around wind-farms.

Ports

• Associated British Ports is one of the UK's businesses that provides port facilities and services all round the UK to shippers and cargo owners. It is unusual in that it is an example of a non-public organisation that has commissioned research on business grounds into the risks associated with climate change, so that it can target resources at particular hotspots.
• The main weather changes which impact on ports are the same as those for shipping, namely rising sea levels, storminess, and wave changes. In common with the other sectors examined, the major impacts on ports are likely to be floods, damage to infrastructure and assets, disruption to operations and, because of its commercial basis, insurance claims.
• Climate change also has an impact on new ports development. Any development has to compensate in kind for lost habitats. Of particular interest here is the zone between low and high tide, which is often rich in biodiversity. Rising sea levels mean that this zone is reduced in areas where there are sea-walls (this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as 'inter-tidal squeeze'). Ports will need to collaborate with Defra, DfT and the Environment Agency to provide for new habitats.

Appendix 1: Research into Climate Change and Transport

Impacts research

The main impacts of climate change on rail can be found in:

'Engineering and Safety Implications of Weather, Climate and Climate Change' commissioned by the Rail Safety and Standards Board. The report can be found at: http://www.railwaysafety.org.uk/pdf/ClimateChangeFR.pdf

The main impacts of climate change on ports can be found in:

'Climate Change: The Implications to Associated British Ports' . This is a private report to ABP - all enquiries should be directed to Peter Barham

The main impacts of climate change on highways can be found in:

'Climate Change and the Highways Agency' by TRL Limited. Enquiries should be directed to Simon Price.

The UK's Climate Impact Programme includes a research programme 'Building Knowledge for a Changing Climate' which includes two projects relevant to transport issues. The programme can be found at http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/pub_dets.asp?ID=2

AUDACIOUS stands for 'Adaptable urban drainage - addressing changes in intensity, occurrence and uncertainty of storm water' This is a cross-disciplinary project to develop tools for assessing and mitigating the effects of climate change on urban drainage systems. It output will be an improved understanding of the potential impacts of climate change on the performance of existing building drainage and local drainage systems and the downstream interfacial effects to main drainage.

BETWIXT stands for Built Environment: Weather scenarios for investigation of Impacts and Extremes. The project aims to provide high spatial/temporal resolution state-of-art climate scenarios for selected case-study locations.

Risk Assessment Tools

UKCIP has produced a guide to introducing climate change into decision making. This is available on line at http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/pub_dets.asp?ID=4

Regional Research

Regional climate change partnerships have carried out assessments of particular climate change issues. These are available from the UKCIP web-site at www.ukcip.org.uk

Interviewees

Highways Agency - Simon Price is the main contact on environmental issues

DfT - David MacMillan, Dennis Roberts, Mark Lambirth, Phil West, Paul Lancaster (Rail), Graham Pendlebury (Aviation)

ABPorts - Peter Barham (Ports)

BAA - Ian Taylor (Aviation)

Network Rail - John Dora and Michelle Francis

Strategic Rail Authority - Giles Thomas

Railway Safety and Standards Board - Andrew Sharpe

Office of the Rail Regulator - Colin Brading

UKCIP - Richenda Connell